Monday, February 9, 2009
Philosophical Perspectives
Philosophical discourse can be described and categorized in many different ways, but a beginning way to approach the field is to look at rationalism, empiricism and pragmatism as different categories of perspectives. Each of these viewpoints has had its share of renowned philosophic supporters with different epistemological beliefs.
Rationalism is sometimes referred to as idealism and dates back to the ancient Greek times of Socrates and Plato. Idealists believe that ultimate truths are everlasting and are discovered through profound thinking and logical arguments. Physical objects do not represent ultimate truths, only imperfect manifestations of perfect ideas. In relation to the arts, rationalists believe that “one can sense, even if for a short period of time, the eternal and lasting Platonic ideas—the realities beyond the physical objects we see and touch. When this happens, the observer or listener loses his or her preoccupation with personal feelings and mundane matters and becomes part of something far greater, more lasting, and more satisfying” (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995, 44). While this approach has its strength in its systematic way of seeking answers, its other strength of stability (something that’s true now will always be true) also serves as its greatest weakness: “why in over 2,000 years has it been so difficult to arrive at some agreement about what those truths are?” (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995, 48).
One well-known rationalist philosopher besides Socrates or Plato is René Descartes, who lived mostly in France 1596-1650. His Discourse on Method and Meditations are philosophy “classics” (as is Plato’s Republic). Descartes’ famous maxim, “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am) sums up the rationalist view of thought as the ultimate reality. To reach this and other conclusions, Descartes used a method of doubt: he assumed everything he previously thought to be true was false, leaving himself open to an unprejudiced approach to epistemology. After this, the first thing he found impossible to doubt was his own existence, giving him a basis point to move forward. Descartes used this one undoubted claim as the first building block to re-establish previously discarded beliefs, such as God’s existence and that the mind and body are distinct from each other (Descartes 2003). Descartes is often referred to as the “Father of Modern Philosophy.”
Rationalism differs from empiricism in that empiricists place more value in their physical senses when seeking truth. Sometimes referred to as realists, these philosophers also have their roots linked to ancient Greek times. Aristotle (the “Father of Logic”) taught that things are, in fact, what they appear to be, and that certain things are clear to everyone. Truth is learned through observation and collection of evidence (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995). One sect of realists support staying close to nature and rejecting large societies/governments. These naturalists do not appreciate complexity in art. Empiricists in general believe that aesthetics in art are related to what a person is able to perceive. If a person does not appreciate a piece of art (such as a musical composition) that everyone “knows” is great, then “the problem is…with the listener, who is not perceiving adequately” (p. 45). Empiricism’s greatest strength is its practical nature: these philosophers “take whatever information they have and work with it as best they can” (p. 48). However, its high reliance on “experts” (whose opinions may differ) can be a drawback.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a French naturalist who lived during the Enlightenment. At the beginning of his Social Contract, Rousseau states, “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains” (Rousseau 2001a, 831). His earlier work, Discourse on Inequality, explains how mankind was initially very similar to animals, but the quality of perfectibility evident in humans caused inequalities to form in conjunction with the early formation of societies. The creation of property and labor division caused class domination, which lead to conflict, which further lead to the laws of a political society into which poorer classes have been “tricked” by the more affluent (Rousseau 2001a). Rousseau’s Social Contract offers a solution to this dilemma, suggesting ways to form a civil community without compromising freedom. Laws should only be enacted if they can be agreed upon by all citizens for their mutual preservation. Citizens should not have elected representatives but should represent themselves and should vote according to the general will of the people (Rousseau 2001b). Rousseau’s beliefs on political and moral philosophy influenced the French Revolution.
Pragmatists reject the conclusions of logic (rationalism) and experts (empiricism) and instead believe in scientifically testing ideas. These philosophers believe nothing lasts forever; there is no “ultimate reality.” Instead, the scientific method needs to be employed to arrive at current truths (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995). Pragmatists believe humans find the arts valuable because they “express human experience, and they make life richer because they make us more conscious of its qualities” (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995, 47). Humans would not know to appreciate beauty in life if life were always stable and the same: the lack of contrast would not allow any comparisons. While pragmatism’s greatest strength is its strong focus on the process of uncovering truth, its weakness is that it only allows one such process and often ignores values (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995, 50).
The American philosopher and educator John Dewey (1859-1952) is often cited in relation to pragmatism. He was born the same year that Darwin’s Origin of the Species was published and was greatly affected by it, going so far as to sign the Humanist Manifesto of 1933 (“Humanist Manifesto I” 2009). Dewey was a proponent of the progressive education movement. He believed that “Education is not a preparation for life; education is life itself” (“John Dewey: Pragmatist Philosopher” 2005). Progressivists believed students should be involved in real-life tasks and challenges. Education should begin with a psychological insight into a child’s capacities, interests and habits, and learning should be active and related to the social situations in which a child finds himself. A teacher’s role, Dewey believed, was not to impose certain ideas on a child but to select influences that would affect the child and to then help guide him in properly responding to these influences (“John Dewey: Pragmatist Philosopher” 2005). John Dewey’s philosophical impact on American education is still felt today.
The rational, empiric and pragmatic approaches to philosophy each offer different means by which to achieve “truth.” Each viewpoint has its share of strengths and weaknesses as well as famous proponents. Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman (1995) suggest that an eclectic philosophical approach might seem tempting. However, “While one may consider points from various philosophical schools, in the end people must make decisions that reveal a tendency to subscribe principally to one of these schools” (p. 51).
Abeles, Harold F., Charles R. Hoffer, and Robert H. Klotman. Foundations of Music Education, 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Thomas Higher Education, 1995.
Descartes, René. Discourse on Method and Meditations. Translated by Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross. New York: Dover Publications, 2003.
“Humanist Manifesto I.” American Humanist Association. 2009. http://www.americanhumanist.org/humanism/manifesto1.php (accessed February 8, 2009).
“John Dewey: Pragmatist Philosopher.” Notes from EDN 475, History and Philosophy of Education, Instructor Phyllis O’Connell. North Central College, Naperville, IL. Winter 2005.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. “Discourse on the Origin of Inequality.” In Classics of Moral and Political Theory, edited by Michael L. Morgan, 3rd ed. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 2001, 777-830.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. “On the Social Contract.” In Classics of Moral and Political Theory, edited by Michael L. Morgan, 3rd ed. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 2001, 831-890.
Rationalism is sometimes referred to as idealism and dates back to the ancient Greek times of Socrates and Plato. Idealists believe that ultimate truths are everlasting and are discovered through profound thinking and logical arguments. Physical objects do not represent ultimate truths, only imperfect manifestations of perfect ideas. In relation to the arts, rationalists believe that “one can sense, even if for a short period of time, the eternal and lasting Platonic ideas—the realities beyond the physical objects we see and touch. When this happens, the observer or listener loses his or her preoccupation with personal feelings and mundane matters and becomes part of something far greater, more lasting, and more satisfying” (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995, 44). While this approach has its strength in its systematic way of seeking answers, its other strength of stability (something that’s true now will always be true) also serves as its greatest weakness: “why in over 2,000 years has it been so difficult to arrive at some agreement about what those truths are?” (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995, 48).
One well-known rationalist philosopher besides Socrates or Plato is René Descartes, who lived mostly in France 1596-1650. His Discourse on Method and Meditations are philosophy “classics” (as is Plato’s Republic). Descartes’ famous maxim, “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am) sums up the rationalist view of thought as the ultimate reality. To reach this and other conclusions, Descartes used a method of doubt: he assumed everything he previously thought to be true was false, leaving himself open to an unprejudiced approach to epistemology. After this, the first thing he found impossible to doubt was his own existence, giving him a basis point to move forward. Descartes used this one undoubted claim as the first building block to re-establish previously discarded beliefs, such as God’s existence and that the mind and body are distinct from each other (Descartes 2003). Descartes is often referred to as the “Father of Modern Philosophy.”
Rationalism differs from empiricism in that empiricists place more value in their physical senses when seeking truth. Sometimes referred to as realists, these philosophers also have their roots linked to ancient Greek times. Aristotle (the “Father of Logic”) taught that things are, in fact, what they appear to be, and that certain things are clear to everyone. Truth is learned through observation and collection of evidence (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995). One sect of realists support staying close to nature and rejecting large societies/governments. These naturalists do not appreciate complexity in art. Empiricists in general believe that aesthetics in art are related to what a person is able to perceive. If a person does not appreciate a piece of art (such as a musical composition) that everyone “knows” is great, then “the problem is…with the listener, who is not perceiving adequately” (p. 45). Empiricism’s greatest strength is its practical nature: these philosophers “take whatever information they have and work with it as best they can” (p. 48). However, its high reliance on “experts” (whose opinions may differ) can be a drawback.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was a French naturalist who lived during the Enlightenment. At the beginning of his Social Contract, Rousseau states, “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains” (Rousseau 2001a, 831). His earlier work, Discourse on Inequality, explains how mankind was initially very similar to animals, but the quality of perfectibility evident in humans caused inequalities to form in conjunction with the early formation of societies. The creation of property and labor division caused class domination, which lead to conflict, which further lead to the laws of a political society into which poorer classes have been “tricked” by the more affluent (Rousseau 2001a). Rousseau’s Social Contract offers a solution to this dilemma, suggesting ways to form a civil community without compromising freedom. Laws should only be enacted if they can be agreed upon by all citizens for their mutual preservation. Citizens should not have elected representatives but should represent themselves and should vote according to the general will of the people (Rousseau 2001b). Rousseau’s beliefs on political and moral philosophy influenced the French Revolution.
Pragmatists reject the conclusions of logic (rationalism) and experts (empiricism) and instead believe in scientifically testing ideas. These philosophers believe nothing lasts forever; there is no “ultimate reality.” Instead, the scientific method needs to be employed to arrive at current truths (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995). Pragmatists believe humans find the arts valuable because they “express human experience, and they make life richer because they make us more conscious of its qualities” (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995, 47). Humans would not know to appreciate beauty in life if life were always stable and the same: the lack of contrast would not allow any comparisons. While pragmatism’s greatest strength is its strong focus on the process of uncovering truth, its weakness is that it only allows one such process and often ignores values (Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman 1995, 50).
The American philosopher and educator John Dewey (1859-1952) is often cited in relation to pragmatism. He was born the same year that Darwin’s Origin of the Species was published and was greatly affected by it, going so far as to sign the Humanist Manifesto of 1933 (“Humanist Manifesto I” 2009). Dewey was a proponent of the progressive education movement. He believed that “Education is not a preparation for life; education is life itself” (“John Dewey: Pragmatist Philosopher” 2005). Progressivists believed students should be involved in real-life tasks and challenges. Education should begin with a psychological insight into a child’s capacities, interests and habits, and learning should be active and related to the social situations in which a child finds himself. A teacher’s role, Dewey believed, was not to impose certain ideas on a child but to select influences that would affect the child and to then help guide him in properly responding to these influences (“John Dewey: Pragmatist Philosopher” 2005). John Dewey’s philosophical impact on American education is still felt today.
The rational, empiric and pragmatic approaches to philosophy each offer different means by which to achieve “truth.” Each viewpoint has its share of strengths and weaknesses as well as famous proponents. Abeles, Hoffer, and Klotman (1995) suggest that an eclectic philosophical approach might seem tempting. However, “While one may consider points from various philosophical schools, in the end people must make decisions that reveal a tendency to subscribe principally to one of these schools” (p. 51).
Abeles, Harold F., Charles R. Hoffer, and Robert H. Klotman. Foundations of Music Education, 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Thomas Higher Education, 1995.
Descartes, René. Discourse on Method and Meditations. Translated by Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross. New York: Dover Publications, 2003.
“Humanist Manifesto I.” American Humanist Association. 2009. http://www.americanhumanist.org/humanism/manifesto1.php (accessed February 8, 2009).
“John Dewey: Pragmatist Philosopher.” Notes from EDN 475, History and Philosophy of Education, Instructor Phyllis O’Connell. North Central College, Naperville, IL. Winter 2005.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. “Discourse on the Origin of Inequality.” In Classics of Moral and Political Theory, edited by Michael L. Morgan, 3rd ed. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 2001, 777-830.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. “On the Social Contract.” In Classics of Moral and Political Theory, edited by Michael L. Morgan, 3rd ed. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, 2001, 831-890.
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